SLC6A4 STin2 VNTR genetic polymorphism is associated with tobacco use disorder, but not with successful smoking cessation or smoking characteristics: a case control study.

The aim of this study was to determine if variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) in the second intron (STin2) of the serotonin transporter (SLC6A4) gene was associated with tobacco use disorder, successful smoking cessation, or smoking characteristics. In this case-control study, patients with current tobacco use disorder, diagnosed according to DSM IV criteria (n = 185), and never-smokers, diagnosed according to CDC criteria (n = 175), were recruited and received 52 weeks of combined pharmacotherapy and cognitive therapy. Successful smoking cessation was defined as exhaled carbon monoxide < 6 ppm. SLC6A4 gene STin2 VNTR polymorphism was assessed using a Multiplex-PCR-based method. At baseline, participants were evaluated using the Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND) and the ASSIST scale.

Nicotine dependence in a prospective population-based study of adolescents : the protective role of a functional tyrosine hydroxylase polymorphism

Dopamine is a key neurotransmitter of the mesolimbic reward pathway in the human brain, and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) is the rate-limiting enzyme in dopamine biosynthesis. Consequently, the gene encoding TH is a strong candidate for involvement in the genetic component of addiction. The importance of this gene in nicotine dependence is supported by many studies showing a link between nicotine administration and TH expression. A functional tetranucleotide repeat polymorphism within intron 1 of the TH gene (HUMTH01-VNTR) has been shown to modify tobacco use in two independent Caucasian samples from the USA and Australia. Using information drawn from an eight-wave Australian population-based longitudinal study of adolescent health, we tested the effect of the HUMTH01-VNTR on nicotine dependence. Comparisons were made between dependent smokers and non-dependent smokers. These data provide further support for a protective association between the K4 allele and dependent smoking (odds ratio 0.54, 95% confidence interval 0.28-1.0). No associations were observed at any of three other common TH polymorphisms (rs6356, rs6357 and HUMTH01-PstI). Including these data, three independent studies, two of which use identical phenotypes, have now identified a protective relationship between the K4 allele of the functional HUMTH01-VNTR polymorphism and high-level smoking.

Dopamine transporter (DAT1) VNTR polymorphism and alcoholism in two culturally different populations of South India

It is well established that the central dopaminergic reward pathway is likely involved in alcohol intake and the progression of alcohol dependence. Dopamine transporter (DAT1) mediates the active re-uptake of DA from the synapse and is a principal regulator of dopaminergic neurotransmission. The gene for the human DAT1 displays several polymorphisms, including a 40-bp variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) ranging from 3 to 16 copies in the 3′-untranslated region (UTR) of the gene. To assess the role of this gene in alcoholism, we genotyped the VNTR of DAT1 gene in a sample of 206 subjects from the Kota population (111 alcohol dependence cases and 95 controls) and 142 subjects from Badaga population (81 alcohol dependence cases and 61 controls). Both populations inhabit a similar environmental zone, but have different ethnic histories. Phenotype was defined based on the DSM-IV criteria. Genotyping was performed using PCR and electrophoresis. The association of DAT1 with alcoholism was tested by using the Clump v1.9 program which uses the Monte Carlo method. In both Kota and Badaga populations, the allele A10 was the most frequent allele followed by allele A9. The genotypic distribution is in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium in both cases and control groups of Kota and Badaga populations. The DAT1 VNTR was significantly associated with alcoholism in Badaga population but not in Kota population. Our results suggest that the A9 allele of the DAT gene is involved in vulnerability to alcoholism, but that these associations are population specific.

STin2 VNTR polymorphism is associated with comorbid tobacco use and mood disorders.

There is a significant comorbidity between mood disorders and tobacco use disorder (TUD), which may be related to both genetic and environmental factors. Gene variants of the 5-HT transporter, such as STin2 VNTR (a variable number of tandem repeats in the functional serotonin transporter intron 2) may be associated with mood disorders and TUD.

Clincial pharmacogenetics and potential application in personalized medicine

The current `fixed-dosage strategy' approach to medicine, means there is much inter-individual variation in drug response. Pharmacogenetics is the study of how inter-individual variations in the DNA sequence of specific genes affect drug responses. This article will highlight current  pharmacogenetic knowledge on important drug metabolizing enzymes, drug transporters and drug targets to understand interindividual variability in drug clearance and responses in clinical practice and potential use in  personalized medicine. Polymorphisms in the cytochrome P450 (CYP) family may have had the most impact on the fate of pharmaceutical drugs. CYP2D6, CYP2C19 and CYP2C9 gene polymorphisms and gene duplications account for the most frequent variations in phase I metabolism of drugs since nearly 80% of drugs in use today are metabolised by these enzymes. Approximately 5% of Europeans and 1% of Asians lack CYP2D6 activity, and these  individuals are known as poor metabolizers. CYP2C9 is another clinically significant drug metabolising enzyme that demonstrates genetic variants. Studies into CYP2C9 polymorphism have highlighted the importance of the CYP2C9*2 and CYP2C9*3 alleles. Extensive polymorphism also occurs in a majority of Phase II drug metabolizing enzymes. One of the most important polymorphisms is thiopurine S-methyl transferases (TPMT) that catalyzes the S-methylation of thiopurine drugs. With respect to drug transport  polymorphism, the most extensively studied drug transporter is  P-glycoprotein (P-gp/MDR1), but the current data on the clinical impact is limited. Polymorphisms in drug transporters may change drug's distribution, excretion and response. Recent advances in molecular research have revealed many of the genes that encode drug targets demonstrate genetic polymorphism. These variations, in many cases, have altered the targets sensitivity to the specific drug molecule and thus have a profound effect on drug efficacy and toxicity. For example, the β2-adrenoreceptor, which is encoded by the ADRB2 gene, illustrates a clinically significant genetic variation in drug targets. The variable number tandem repeat polymorphisms in serotonin transporter (SERT/SLC6A4) gene are associated with response to antidepressants. The distribution of the common variant alleles of genes that encode drug metabolizing enzymes, drug transporters and drug targets has been found to vary among different populations. The promise of pharmacogenetics lies in its potential to identify the right drug at the right dose for the right individual. Drugs with a narrow therapeutic index are thought to benefit more from pharmacogenetic studies. For example, warfarin serves as a good practical example of how pharmacogenetics can be utilized prior to commencement of therapy in order to achieve maximum efficacy and minimum toxicity. As such, pharmacogenetics has the potential to achieve optimal quality use of medicines, and to improve the efficacy and safety of both prospective and licensed drugs.

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) markers in conservation biology

Human impacts through habitat destruction, introduction of invasive species and climate change are increasing the number of species threatened with extinction. Decreases in population size simultaneously lead to reductions in genetic diversity, ultimately reducing the ability of populations to adapt to a changing environment. In this way, loss of genetic polymorphism is linked with extinction risk. Recent advances in sequencing technologies mean that obtaining measures of genetic diversity at functionally important genes is within reach for conservation programs. A key region of the genome that should be targeted for population genetic studies is the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC). MHC genes, found in all jawed vertebrates, are the most polymorphic genes in vertebrate genomes. They play key roles in immune function via immune-recognition and -surveillance and host-parasite interaction. Therefore, measuring levels of polymorphism at these genes can provide indirect measures of the immunological fitness of populations. The MHC has also been linked with mate-choice and pregnancy outcomes and has application for improving mating success in captive breeding programs. The recent discovery that genetic diversity at MHC genes may protect against the spread of contagious cancers provides an added impetus for managing and protecting MHC diversity in wild populations. Here we review the field and focus on the successful applications of MHC-typing for conservation management. We emphasize the importance of using MHC markers when planning and executing wildlife rescue and conservation programs but stress that this should not be done to the detriment of genome-wide diversity.

Colour polymorphism is likely to be disadvantageous to some populations and species due to genetic architecture and morph interactions

Polymorphism describes two or more distinct, genetically determined, phenotypes that co-occur in the same population, where the rarest morph is maintained at a frequency above the mutation rate (Ford 1945; Huxley 1955). In a recent opinion piece, we explored a new idea regarding the role of genetic architectures and morph interactions in colour polymorphisms and how this can negatively affect population performance (Bolton et al. 2015). In this issue of Molecular Ecology, Forsman (2016) thoroughly discusses the current evidence for polymorphisms enhancing population performance and critiques the validity of the definitions of polymorphism we use in our original paper. We respond by clarifying that the negative consequences of polymorphisms that we discussed are likely to be most pertinent in species that have a particular set of characteristics, such as strong sexual or social interactions between morphs and discrete genetic architectures. Although it was not our intention to redefine polymorphism, we do believe that there should be further discussion about refining or characterizing balanced polymorphisms with respect to the degree of morph sympatry, discreteness of traits and their underlying genetic architecture, and the types of selection that drive and maintain the variation. The latter describes whether polymorphism is primarily maintained by external factors such as predation pressure or internal factors such as interactions with members of the same species. The contribution of Forsman (2016) is useful to this discussion, and we hope that our exchange of opinions will inspire new empirical and theoretical ideas on the origin and maintenance of colour polymorphisms.

Genetic variation and obesity in Australian women: A prospective study.

Objective: A number of candidate genes have been implicated in the pathogenesis of obesity in humans. This study examines associations between longitudinal changes in body mass and composition and the presence of polymorphisms in the ß-3 adrenergic receptor, tumor necrosis factor-α, leptin, and leptin receptor (Lepr) in a cohort of Australian women.

Research Methods and Procedures: Healthy white Australian women (n = 335) were randomly selected from the Barwon region of Victoria and underwent baseline anthropometry and double-energy X-ray absorptiometry for assessment of body mass and adiposity. These measurements were repeated again at 2-year follow-up. Genomic DNA was extracted and used for polymerase chain reaction-based genotyping of all polymorphisms.

Results: The Pro1019Pro Lepr polymorphism was associated with longitudinal increases in body weight (p = 0.02), fat mass (p = 0.05), and body mass index (p = 0.01) in this study, and individuals homozygous for the A allele at this locus had a greater propensity to gain body fat over time. The largest effects on body composition seemed to be in individuals already obese at baseline. Changes in body weight, fat mass, percent body fat, and body mass index over a 2-year period were not associated with genetic variation in the ß-3 adrenergic receptor (Trp64Arg), tumor necrosis factor-α promoter, or leptin genes in non-obese or obese women.

Discussion: These results suggest that a Lepr polymorphism is involved in the regulation of body mass and adiposity in obese Australian white women, which may have implications for the treatment of obesity in this population.

Lack of genetic divergence found with microsatellite DNA markers in the tarakihi Nemadactylus macropterus

Three classes of molecular markers are commonly employed during population genetic studies of marine taxa: allozymes, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), and microsatellite DNA. These markers differ in their levels of polymorphism, and the ease and cost of their application. Nemadactylus macropterus is a commercially important marine fish from New Zealand and southern Australia that has been the subject of genetic (allozyme, mtDNA) and non-genetic (otolith microchemistry, larval advection) studies of stock structure. We collected microsatellite DNA data from this species to compare the utility of these molecular markers with those genetic methods previously applied to N. macropterus. Microsatellites did not indicate significant divergence among Australian samples, or between Australian and New Zealand samples. The latter is incongruent with the allozyme and mtDNA studies, and it is suggested that allelic homoplasy has hindered the resolution of population structure when using microsatellites.

Genetic variation in selenoprotein S influences inflammatory response

Chronic inflammation has a pathological role in many common diseases and is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Here we assess the role of genetic variation in selenoprotein S (SEPS1, also called SELS or SELENOS), a gene involved in stress response in the endoplasmic reticulum and inflammation control. After resequencing SEPS1, we genotyped 13 SNPs in 522 individuals from 92 families. As inflammation biomarkers, we measured plasma levels of IL-6, IL-1b and TNF-a. Bayesian quantitative trait nucleotide analysis identified associations between SEPS1 polymorphisms and all three proinflammatory
cytokines. One promoter variant, 105G-A, showed strong evidence for an association with each cytokine (multivariate P = 0.0000002). Functional analysis of this polymorphism showed that the A variant significantly impaired SEPS1 expression after exposure to endoplasmic reticulum stress agents (P = 0.00006). Furthermore, suppression of SEPS1 by short interfering RNA in macrophage cells increased the release of IL-6 and TNF-a. To investigate further the significance of the observed associations, we genotyped 105G-A in 419 Mexican American individuals from 23 families for replication. This analysis confirmed a significant
association with both TNF-a (P = 0.0049) and IL-1b (P = 0.0101). These results provide a direct mechanistic link between SEPS1 and the production of inflammatory cytokines and suggest that SEPS1 has a role in mediating inflammation.

Genetic polymorphisms of cytochrome P450 2B6 gene in Han Chinese

Cytochrome P450 (CYP2B6) is an important enzyme that metabolizes more than eight compounds and about 3.0% of therapeutic drugs. The genetic polymorphisms of CYP2B6 have earlier been studied in Caucasian, Japanese and Korean, but the data are lacking for Han Chinese. The aim of this study was to investigate the frequencies of allelic variants of CYP2B6 in healthy Han Chinese and compare with those in other ethnic groups reported in the literature. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)–restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) method was used to test the five common non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of CYP2B6 gene, namely, 64C > T, 516G > T, 777C > A, 785A > G and 1459C > T in unrelated healthy Han Chinese (n = 193). The study demonstrated that the frequencies of 64C > T, 516G > T, 777C > A, 785A > G and 1459C > T SNPs in Han Chinese were 0.03, 0.21, 0, 0.28 and 0.003, respectively. The frequencies of all five SNPs tested in female were higher than those in male, but the statistical difference was insignificant (P > 0.05). Compared to the data reported in the literature, the frequencies of common CYP2B6 allelic variants in Chinese are similar to those of other Asian populations including Japanese and Korean, but markedly different from those in Caucasians. These results indicate the presence of marked ethnic difference in CYP2B6 SNP frequencies between Chinese and Caucasian. Further studies are required to explore the impact of these SNPs of CYP2B6 gene on the clinical response (efficacy and toxicity) to drugs that are substrates for CYP2B6 in patients.

VNTR polymorphism of the insulin gene and childhood overweight in a general population

Objective: The VNTR polymorphism 5' of the insulin gene has been related to obesity in a previous study on children with early onset of severe obesity. Our purpose was to analyze the association between this polymorphism and adiposity variability in an unselected population of children and adolescents in northern France.

Research Methods and Procedures: In 293 nuclear families from the Fleurbaix Laventie Ville Santé study, we genotyped the INS VNTR polymorphism in 431 children and adolescents (8 to 18 years of age) and their parents. Overweight was defined according to the international definition in both children and adults. A transmission disequilibrium test in families with an overweight offspring was performed. The prevalence of overweight was compared according to genotype. The effect of the genotype on BMI and waist circumference was tested with a linear regression model, adjusting for age, gender, and Tanner stage.

Results: There was an undertransmission of class III alleles from heterozygous parents to their overweight offspring (p < 0.002). Overweight was associated with class I alleles in children and adolescents (12% I/I, I/III vs. 3% III/III; p < 0.08). Those with a class III/III genotype had a 1 kg/m2 lower mean BMI (p = 0.04) and 3 cm lower waist circumference (p = 0.02) than those bearing one or two class I alleles. No association of adiposity or obesity with class I alleles was found in parents.

Discussion: INS VNTR polymorphism seems to contribute to differences in adiposity level in the general population of children and adolescents.

Regressive logistic and proportional hazards disease models for within-family analyses of measured genotypes, with application to a CYP17 polymorphism and breast cancer

Various statistical methods have been proposed to evaluate associations between measured genetic variants and disease, including some using family designs. For breast cancer and rare variants, we applied a modified segregation analysis method that uses the population cancer incidence and population-based case families in which a mutation is known to be segregating. Here we extend the method to a common polymorphism, and use a regressive logistic approach to model familial aggregation by conditioning each individual on their mother's breast cancer history. We considered three models: 1) class A regressive logistic model; 2) age-of-onset regressive logistic model; and 3) proportional hazards familial model. Maximum likelihood estimates were calculated using the software MENDEL. We applied these methods to data from the Australian Breast Cancer Family Study on the CYP17 5UTR TC MspA1 polymorphism measured for 1,447 case probands, 787 controls, and 213 relatives of case probands found to have the CC genotype. Breast cancer data for first- and second-degree relatives of case probands were used. The three methods gave consistent estimates. The best-fitting model involved a recessive inheritance, with homozygotes being at an increased risk of 47% (95% CI, 28-68%). The cumulative risk of the disease up to age 70 years was estimated to be 10% or 22% for a CYP17 homozygote whose mother was unaffected or affected, respectively. This analytical approach is well-suited to the data that arise from population-based case-control-family studies, in which cases, controls and relatives are studied, and genotype is measured for some but not all subjects.

Substrate specificity, regulation, and polymorphism of human cytochrome P450 2B6

CYP2B6 is mainly expressed in the liver that has been thought historically to play an insignificant role in human drug metabolism. However, increased interest in this enzyme has been stimulated by the discovery of polymorphic and ethnic differences in CYP2B6 expression, identification of additional substrates for CYP2B6, and evidence for co-regulation with CYP3A4. This paper updates our knowledge about the structure, function, regulation and polymorphism of CYP2B6. CYP2B6 can metabolise approximately 8% of clinically used drugs (n > 60), including cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, tamoxifen, ketamine, artemisinin, nevirapine, efavirenz, bupropion, sibutramine, and propofol. CYP2B6 is one of the CYP enzymes that bioactivate several procarcinogens and toxicants. This enzyme also metabolizes arachidonic acid, lauric acid, 17beta-estradiol, estrone, ethinylestradiol, and testosterone. Typical substrates of CYP2B6 are non-planar molecules, neutral or weakly basic, highly lipophilic with one or two hydrogen-bond acceptors. The crystal structure of CYP2B6 has not been resolved, while several pharmacophore and homology models of human CYP2B6 have been reported. Human CYP2B6 is closely regulated by constitutive androstane receptor (CAR/NR1I3) which can activate CYP2B6 expression upon ligand binding. Pregnane X receptor and glucocorticoid receptor also play a role in the regulation of CYP2B6. Induction of CYP2B6 may partially explain some clinical drug interactions observed. For example, coadministered carbamazepine decreases the systemic exposure of bupropion. There is a wide interindividual variability in the expression and activity of CYP2B6. Such a large variability is probably due to effects of genetic polymorphisms and exposure to drugs that are inducers or inhibitors of CYP2B6. To date, at least 28 allelic variants and some subvariants of CYP2B6 (*1B through *29) have been described and some of them have been shown to have important functional impact on drug clearance and drug response. For example, the efavirenz plasma levels in African-American subjects with the CYP2B6 homozygous 516T/T genotype are approximately 3-fold higher than individuals carrying the homozygous G/G genotype. The CYP2B6 516T/T genotype is associated with 1.7-fold greater plasma levels of nevirapine in HIV-infected patients. Smokers with the 1459C>T (R487C) variant of CYP2B6 may be more vulnerable to abstinence symptoms and relapse following treatment with bupropion as a smoking cessation agent. Further studies in the structure, function, regulation and polymorphism of CYP2B6 are warranted.

Covariation in life-history traits : differential effects of diet on condition, hormones, behavior, and reproduction in genetic finch morphs

The relative contribution of genetic and environmental factors in determining variation in life-history traits is of central interest to evolutionary biologists, but the physiological mechanisms underlying these traits are still poorly understood. Here we experimentally demonstrate opposing effects of nutritional stress on immune function, endocrine physiology, parental care, and reproduction between red and black head-color morphs of the Gouldian finch (Erythrura gouldiae). Although the body condition of black morphs was largely unaffected by diet manipulation, red birds were highly sensitive to dietary changes, exhibiting considerable within-individual changes in condition and immune function. Consequently, nutritionally stressed red birds delayed breeding, produced smaller broods, and reared fewer and lower-quality foster offspring than black morphs. Differences in offspring quality were largely due to morph-specific differences in parental effort: red morphs reduced parental provisioning, whereas black morphs adaptively elevated their provisioning effort to meet the increased nutritional demands of their foster brood. Nutritionally stressed genetic morphs also exhibited divergent glucocorticoid responses. Black morphs showed reduced corticosterone-binding globulin (CBG) concentrations and increased levels of free corticosterone, whereas red morphs exhibited reduced free corticosterone levels and elevated CBG concentrations. These opposing glucocorticoid responses highlight intrinsic differences in endocrine sensitivities and plasticity between genetic morphs, which may underlie the morph-specific differences in condition, behavior, and reproduction and thus ultimately contribute to the evolution and maintenance of color polymorphism.